From 9/11 to the 2016 Election: How Conspiracy Theories and the Collapse of Truth Fueled a Resurgence of Antisemitism

Scholars of prejudice, antisemitism included, regularly point to the role that critical socio-political events can play in the manifestation of hate, bigotry, discrimination, and group-targeted violence. Empirical research has identified a linkage between the salience of an event associated with a particular group—whether that tie is real, exaggerated, or fictitious—and the increased assignment of blame and responsibility toward that group by outgroups. A current example of such an event and association is Israel’s military response to the Hamas October 7 terror attack with American Jewry. The conceptualization and application of blame attribution in psychological, sociological, and political science literature underscores the role that dimensions, such as locus, stability, and controllability, play in its fruition. And the development of these underlying factors is often tied to event characteristics—promoted by a perception that legal structures and governing institutions are unable or unwilling to rectify ongoing injustice.

This article will build on the knowledge referred to above to help explain factors in reported antisemitic incident variation and overall trends of antisemitism over the past quarter century in the United States. It delves into the importance and interconnectedness of sociopolitical stimuli, conspiratorial thinking, blame attribution (and consequent responsibility), and the dilution of truth. Unsurprisingly, these intertwined factors have resulted in increased prejudicial attitudes and beliefs and, most importantly, meaningful spikes in antisemitic events ranging from non-criminal bias incidents to lethal hate crimes.

Utilizing existing social science and antisemitism research applied in the American context, this article articulates three distinct but interrelated points: (1) the noxious mixture of negative salient socio-political events, blame attribution, and conspiratorial thinking uniquely contributes to the manifestation of contemporary antisemitism; (2) 9/11 and the 2016 U.S. presidential election represent critical episodes contributing to both immediate spikes in antisemitism and to long-term changes in the evolutionary trajectory of American anti-Jewish attitudes and beliefs; and (3) the growing inability of society to distinguish “fiction” from “truth” serves as a catalyst for the continued proliferation and normalization of antisemitism.

A Toxic Combination of Factors Contributing to Antisemitism

Social scientists have found that group threat and blame often serve as a prerequisite motivation for perpetrators of hate-based incidents. But why do group threat and blame manifest around some events?

Extant research has demonstrated a clear linkage between salient negative events associated with a particular minority group and spikes in reported bias incidents and hate crimes. A relevant example was the initial surge of COVID-19 cases in the United States, triggering increased targeting of the Asian American Pacific Islander (AAPI) population. At the level of theory, it is understood that salient negative events associated with a particular group can induce identity-based grievances, leading to attacks perpetrated by those with retributive motives. In the COVID-19 example, many perpetrators of attacks targeting the AAPI community blamed China for the proliferation of the virus and channeled this state-based grievance to people they believed were associated with that country.

 Importantly, the likelihood, quantity, and intensity of salient negative events related to bias incidents and hate crimes are mediated by perceptions of whether there are legitimate and legal means in which to rectify associated injustices. This is where a subscription to conspiracy theories and conspiratorial thinking plays an important additive role in explaining the manifestation of hate. Conspiratorial thinking is correlated with reduced locus of control and increased distrust in governing institutions. A heightened sense of uncontrollability combined with the belief that there are no legal mechanisms to respond to past, continued, and future injustices serve as a catalyst for extra-legal, hate-based attacks.

 One of the strongest correlates predicting heightened antisemitic trope alignment (attitudes and beliefs) is conspiratorial thinking. Empirical research has shown that the relationship between conspiracy and antisemitism works in multiple directions. Exposure to conspiracies and increased susceptibility to conspiracy thinking—including when said conspiracies are absent any direct association with Jews—is associated with increased antisemitism. Antisemitism, often described as an inherently conspiratorial prejudice, relies heavily on conspiracy to contextualize its modern materializations. For example, on the ideological far right, certain narratives of the xenophobic “Great Replacement Theory” suggest that Jews, a population of roughly 2 percent of the United States and 0.2 percent of the world, are the driving force behind undocumented migration. On the ideological far left, some narratives claim that disproportionate Jewish resources have been purchased by American politicians to ensure a pro-Israel consensus. Both narratives fail to exist, absent conspiracy.

Given that conspiracy is frequently at the heart of modern antisemitism, it is unsurprising that it serves as a force multiplier when explaining salient event-motivated hate crimes. That said, how did we get here? What helps explain why anti-Jewish conspiracies are so prevalent in American society?

Foundational Events—9/11 and the 2016 Election

Conspiracy theories have long been a vehicle for antisemitism, old and new. Whether it’s the myth of Jewish world domination in the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” or malicious theories about Jewish control of the global financial system, these ideas cast Jews as malevolent manipulators operating behind the scenes for self-gain at the expense of others.

Two foundational events—9/11 and the 2016 U.S. presidential election—served to introduce and normalize antisemitic conspiracy in profound ways.

Almost immediately following the 9/11 terror attacks, theories about Jewish involvement in the attacks spread like wildfire. These theories mirrored older conspiracies that blamed Jews for everything from economic crises to pandemics. Many were anti-Israel in orientation, suggesting that Israel conducted the attacks to coerce the United States to fight its regional enemies across the Middle East. Other conspiracies suggested that the American government had been captured by Jewish forces from within, arguing that 9/11 was a false-flag operation. These theories often relied on the belief that prominent Jewish neoconservatives (e.g., Paul Wolfowitz) in the Bush administration were the driving force behind American foreign policy and were more loyal to the Jewish people and Israel than the United States. Despite lacking even facial validity and being widely debunked by experts and authorities, 9/11 opened the door for the mainstreaming of conspiratorial antisemitism in modern U.S. society. Even a decade after the attack, polling consistently showed a sizable chunk of Americans believed the U.S. government “knowingly allowed the attacks on September 11th.” It is noteworthy that reported anti-Muslim hate crimes and bias incidents rose substantially immediately following the attacks of 9/11, in addition to antisemitism.

Like 9/11, the 2016 U.S. presidential election was characterized by conspiratorial thinking and blanketed with specific conspiracies related to Hillary Clinton’s “insider” candidacy, including those that were unambiguous dog-whistles for antisemitism. Rhetoric used to describe the veiled forces behind the election and maintaining the status quo government included terms such as “deep state” or “globalist elites.” These pejoratives for the world’s villains are commonplace in antisemitic narratives and conspiracies, but by avoiding explicit claims of Jewish control, the use of these terms allowed for an easier mainstreaming of said conspiracies into regular political discourse. It is important to note that then candidate Trump’s opponents also relied heavily on conspiracy, frequently positing that Trump was a “Manchurian candidate” of Russia.

Given the explosion of conspiracy thinking surrounding the 2016 U.S. presidential election, it is unsurprising that the post-election environment was marred with a significant rise in antisemitic hate crimes. Much of this activity was celebratory in nature, with white nationalists emboldened by Trump’s election rejoicing the possibility that a disproportionately Jewish (or even Jewish-run) “deep state” had been defeated.

Absent any serious changes to our political system a full year after former President Trump’s election, one of the most widespread conspiracies in American history was formed—QAnon—to explain why the “deep state” had not yet been defeated. Though ostensibly focused on combating corruption and a secretive cabal of elites, QAnon draws on many classic antisemitic tropes, including the idea that Jews are part of a shadowy global power structure, as well as “blood libel.”

By some measures, at its height, nearly 20 percent of Americans believed explicit QAnon messaging, such as, “There is a storm coming soon that will sweep away the elites in power and restore the rightful leaders.” If 9/11 opened the door for the normalization of conspiratorial thinking in the United States, the 2016 election and its aftermath blew it off entirely.

The Dissolution of “Truth”

Major events did not normalize conspiracy and antisemitism alone. The normalization of conspiratorial thinking was intensified by the changing modalities through which we can share information. 9/11 occurred at an important point in the “tech revolution,” where advances in the ease with which users could create, promote, and disseminate content were increasing exponentially. That said, at the time of the 9/11 terror attack, there was no Myspace, YouTube, Facebook, or Twitter/X. By the time of the 2016 U.S. presidential election, the vast majority of Americans were social network users. Today, the number one means of news consumption is on digital platforms.

Digital modalities, and social media particularly, provide a fertile breeding ground for conspiracy and antisemitism. Misinformation and disinformation can be generated in real time to distort ongoing events like elections, terror attacks, or armed conflict. Platforms like Twitter/X and Tik Tok, by design, amplify news information that is too brief to be nuanced. They also do a notably, and perhaps purposefully, horrific job at helping users discern what is accurate content. Many algorithms connect users susceptible to conspiracy thinking to conspiracies and explicit antisemitic content.

To meaningfully combat antisemitism in the modern era, we must do a significantly better job of studying how salient events, conspiracy, and the dissolution of truth can be disaggregated and what interventions are most successful in doing so. In the meantime, knowing how these factors work collaboratively should help predict spikes of antisemitism, allowing for the implementation of better security for the Jewish community and the speedier application of interventions that we do know can at least begin to reduce antisemitic attitudes and beliefs.