Undisputed Amounts
Arguably, there is a great deal that is not disputed. Larry and Claudia have agreed that $25,000 in costs can be recouped and that Larry is entitled to at least a 20-percent fee, although it is not yet clear if that 20-percent fee should be computed on $950,000 or on $975,000. Nevertheless, Larry is entitled to at least $25,000 in costs and to at least a $190,000 fee, for a total income of $215,000. Although it is not yet clear how much Claudia will net from the case, the minimum she will get is specified in the provisions in the fee agreement. Thus, taking the $50,000 as costs, Claudia should receive two-thirds of $950,000, or $633,270. Even under Larry’s reading of the fee agreement, this is the amount to which Claudia is entitled, although she might receive more if her arguments prevail.
How much should Larry and Claudia report as income? You might think that you do not have enough information to make that decision, and you would probably be right. After all, you do not really know whether Larry and Claudia have agreed that partial distributions can be made, or if they are taking the position that they will not agree to anything unless the entire matter is resolved. However, that does not appear to be so. Indeed, the positions of the parties seem clear that each is already entitled to some money. That gives rise to income, regardless of whether they actually receive the cash. If they have a legal right to the money and could withdraw it, then that is constructive receipt, if not actual receipt.
Any talk of withdrawal should invite discussion of restrictions and partial agreements. For example, what if you add to the fact pattern that, although these are the negotiating positions of Larry and Claudia, neither of them will agree to any distributions, treating the entire amount as disputed. Does that mean neither has any income in 2016? Does it matter what documents are prepared? The answer to the latter question is surely “yes.” Good documentation always goes a long way to helping to achieve tax goals.
For example, an escrow agreement acknowledging that all of the money is in dispute and prohibiting any withdrawal until the parties agree might contraindicate income. A document each party signs agreeing that they disagree and that no party can withdraw any amount until they both agree in writing should be pretty convincing. Even so, I am not sure it is dispositive to the IRS. It may be hard to argue with the fact that the parties’ positions speak for themselves, and that some portions of the funds are undisputed. Besides, there is a strong sentiment that a lawyer is merely the client’s agent. Presumptively, settlement monies in the hands of the lawyer are already received by the client for tax purposes.
Consider the defendant in this example. The defendant paid the $1 million in 2016. Depending on the nature of the payment, it seems reasonable to assume that the defendant will deduct it in 2016. It will likely issue one or more IRS Forms 1099, too, probably to both Larry and Claudia in the full amount of $1 million each. How will Larry and Claudia treat those Forms 1099? There may be a variety of possibilities. Assuming both Larry and Claudia argue the entire amount is in dispute, one approach is to footnote Form 1040, line 21 (the “other income” line), showing the $1 million payment. Then, they might subtract the $1 million payment as disputed and in escrow and therefore not income, netting zero on line 21. There is probably no perfect way to do this.
Escrows and Qualified Settlement Funds
Apart from mere escrows, qualified settlement funds (sometimes called QSFs or a 468B trusts) are also increasingly common. A QSF typically is established by a court order and remains subject to the court’s continuing jurisdiction. Treas. Reg. § 1.468B-1(c)(1). If the fund is a QSF, the defendant would be entitled to its tax deduction, yet neither Larry nor Claudia would be taxed on the fund’s earnings. The fund itself would be taxed, but only on the earnings on the $1 million, not the $1 million itself.
In our example, there is no court supervision, so it seems unlikely that the escrow could be a QSF. If the fund is merely an escrow, either Larry or Claudia should be taxed on the earnings in the fund, but not on the principal until the dispute is resolved and the disputed amount is distributed. Unlike a QSF, escrow accounts typically are not separately taxable, so one of the parties must be taxed on the earnings. See Treas. Reg. §§ 1.468B-6, 1.468B-7.
Normally, the escrow’s earnings would be taxable to the beneficial owner of the funds held in escrow. Rev. Rul. 77-85, 1977-1 C.B. 12 (IRB 1977), modified on other grounds, IRS Announcement 77-102 (1977). Either Larry or Claudia (or both) could be viewed as beneficial owners. Therefore, an agreement specifying who will be taxed on the disputed funds while held in escrow would be wise.
Structured Settlements and Structured Legal Fees
Some clients prefer structured settlements that pay them (through the use of annuities) over time rather than in a lump sum. In a similar way, contingent-fee lawyers who expect to receive a contingent fee are allowed to “structure” their fees over time, but if they receive the funds in their trust account, it is too late to structure. In fact, it is too late to structure fees if the settlement agreement is signed and the fees are payable. A lawyer who wants to structure legal fees must put the documents in place before the settlement agreement is signed. Just as in the case of the plaintiff, legal rights are at stake. In general, a contingent-fee lawyer is entitled to condition his or her agreement on a payment over time.
In reality, of course, it is the client of the plaintiff’s lawyer that has the legal rights and is signing the settlement agreement. That is why a lawyer who wants to structure fees must build that concept into the settlement agreement. Like structured settlements for plaintiffs, legal fee structures usually are not installment payments by the defendant. Rather, the settlement agreement will specify the stream of payments and call for the contingent fee to be paid to a third party that makes those arrangements. As you might expect, it is important for each element of the legal fee structure to be done carefully to avoid the lawyer being taxed before he or she receives installments, but the entire concept of structured legal fees must be mindful of the constructive receipt doctrine.
Understandably, cash method taxpayers do not want to be taxed on monies before they actually receive them; however, the constructive receipt doctrine can upset this expectation. Constructive receipt often can be avoided through careful planning and proper documentation.
More About Qualified Settlement Funds
The rules pertaining to constructive receipt seem to be thrown out the window when using this important and innovative settlement device. A QSF typically is set up as a case is resolved. The IRS provides that a fund is a “qualified settlement fund” if it satisfies each of the following:
- It is established pursuant to an order of, or is approved by, specified governmental entities (including courts) and is subject to the continuing jurisdiction of that entity;
- It is established to resolve or satisfy one or more claims that have resulted or may result from an event that has occurred and that has given rise to at least one claim asserting certain liabilities; and
- The fund, account, or trust must be a trust under applicable state law, or its assets must otherwise be segregated from other assets of the transferor. Treas. Reg. § 1.468B-1(c).
Section 468B trusts allow defendants to pay money into the trust and be entirely released from liability in a case, yet the plaintiffs and their counsel do not have income until the money comes out. The 468B trust is a kind of holding pattern where no one is (yet) taxed on the principal or corpus of the trust. Even so, the defendant can deduct the payment for tax purposes. Any interest earned on the monies in the QSF is taxed to the trust itself. There are many nuances to observe about the use of QSFs.
However, QSFs can be a kind of safety valve from the constructive receipt doctrine. In appropriate cases, QSFs can provide lawyers and clients with additional time to sort out who is entitled to what, to resolve liens, and to arrange for structured settlements and structured legal fees. A QSF allows plaintiffs and their lawyers to resolve such issues after the defendant(s) have paid the settlement or judgment but before the plaintiffs and their lawyers have receipt.
Conclusion
Constructive receipt is a fundamental, yet widely confused, tax doctrine. It applies when you have an unrestricted right to income but you do not accept it. Consequently, lawyers and their clients may encounter constructive receipt concerns if they sign legal releases or are otherwise entitled to payments that they then try to delay. Be careful. A good rule of thumb is not to sign a settlement agreement unless: (1) you are clear on what the timing of the payments will be; and (2) this timing is acceptable to you. Once you (or your client) signs and is entitled to payment, it may be too late to change it. In some litigation, one way to build in payment flexibility can be by using a QSF that holds the funds. A QSF can be especially appropriate in complex cases with multiple parties involving disputes over payment amounts and timing. However you address these issues, no one wants to be taxed on money they have not even received!
